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3D Gaussian Splatting

A scene representation and rendering technique that models a 3D scene as millions of coloured 3D Gaussians, enabling high-quality, real-time novel view synthesis.

A/B Testing (ML)

A/B testing in machine learning is a controlled experiment method that compares two or more model variants in production to determine which delivers superior performance on real-world business metrics.

Activation Function

A mathematical function applied to a neuron's output in a neural network that introduces non-linearity, enabling models to learn complex patterns beyond simple linear relationships.

Active Learning

Active learning is a machine learning paradigm in which the algorithm selectively queries a human annotator for labels on the most informative data points, minimising labelling effort while maximising model performance.

Actor-Critic Algorithms

Actor-critic algorithms are reinforcement learning methods that train a policy (the actor) and a value function (the critic) together, trading the bias of bootstrapping for much lower variance than plain policy gradients.

Adam Optimizer

Adam is an adaptive gradient-based optimization algorithm for training neural networks that combines momentum with per-parameter adaptive learning rates derived from estimates of the first and second moments of the gradients.

Adobe Firefly

Adobe Firefly is a family of generative AI models developed by Adobe for creating and editing images, vectors, design assets and video, trained with an emphasis on commercially safe, licensed content.

Adversarial Machine Learning

Adversarial machine learning is the study of attacks that exploit weaknesses in machine learning models, such as crafted inputs that cause misclassification, and of the defences designed to make models more robust.

Aerodyne Group

Aerodyne Group is a Malaysian drone technology and data analytics company ranked among the world's largest commercial drone service providers.

Agent Skills

Agent Skills is an open standard, published by Anthropic in December 2025, for packaging reusable instructions and resources that AI agents load on demand.

Agent2Agent Protocol (A2A)

An open protocol that lets independent AI agents built on different frameworks discover one another, exchange messages, and delegate tasks over a standard interface.

Agentic AI

Agentic AI refers to artificial intelligence systems designed to pursue goals autonomously over extended time horizons by perceiving their environment, reasoning about actions, executing multi-step plans, and learning from outcomes without requiring continuous human instruction.

Agentic commerce

Agentic commerce is the use of AI agents to research, compare and complete online purchases on a shopper's behalf, shifting discovery from websites and search engines to zero-click AI-mediated channels.

Agentic RAG

Agentic RAG is an approach to retrieval-augmented generation in which autonomous AI agents dynamically decide when, what, and how to retrieve information, applying planning, reflection, and tool use rather than following a fixed retrieve-then-generate pipeline.

AI Accelerator

An AI accelerator is a class of semiconductor — GPU, ASIC, NPU or wafer-scale chip — built to run AI training and inference workloads more efficiently than a general-purpose processor.

AI Adoption Among Malaysian SMEs

AI adoption among Malaysian small and medium enterprises is a national policy priority, driven by MDEC programmes, financing platforms and industry committees aimed at productivity.

AI Agents

Autonomous AI systems that perceive their environment, reason over goals, select and execute actions using external tools, and operate across multi-step tasks with minimal human intervention.

AI Alignment

AI alignment is the field of research dedicated to ensuring that artificial intelligence systems pursue goals, values, and behaviours that are consistent with human intentions.

AI and Copyright

AI and copyright is the field of law and policy concerning the use of copyrighted works to train artificial intelligence models and the ownership of AI-generated outputs, an area being shaped by major litigation, licensing deals and new regulation worldwide.

AI and Elections

AI and elections covers the use of artificial intelligence in campaigning — from voter targeting to deepfakes and influence operations — and the regulatory responses emerging in the European Union, the United States and Malaysia.

AI and Employment

AI and employment refers to the effects of artificial intelligence on work — augmentation, displacement and reskilling — with studies estimating that roughly a quarter of jobs globally are exposed to generative AI and identifying concentrated risks for Malaysia's services sector.

AI and Energy

AI and energy describes the relationship between artificial intelligence and electricity systems: the fast-growing power demand of AI data centres and its effect on grids, and the use of AI to manage energy networks.

AI and Misinformation

The production, amplification and detection of false or misleading content using artificial intelligence, covering synthetic media, automated influence operations and the countermeasures used against them.

AI Automation

AI automation combines artificial intelligence with robotic process automation and workflow orchestration to eliminate repetitive tasks, reduce errors, and free human workers for higher-value work.

AI Benchmarking

The systematic evaluation of AI systems using standardised datasets, tasks, and metrics to measure capability, compare models, and track progress across research and deployment contexts.

AI Bias

Systematic and unfair discrimination introduced into artificial intelligence systems through biased training data, flawed model design, or problematic deployment decisions, leading to unequal outcomes across demographic groups or categories.

AI Browser

An AI browser is a web browser with a generative AI assistant built in, able to answer questions about the page a user is viewing and, in agent mode, carry out multi-step tasks such as research, form-filling and shopping.

AI Chip Export Controls

AI chip export controls are government restrictions on the sale, re-export and transshipment of advanced AI semiconductors, introduced principally by the United States and enforced in trading hubs such as Malaysia through national export control laws.

AI Companions

AI companions are conversational AI applications built around persistent personas that provide friendship, emotional support or romantic interaction, rather than performing productivity tasks.

AI Content Detection

AI content detection is the use of software to determine whether text, images, audio or video were generated by artificial intelligence, spanning classifier tools, statistical analysis, watermarking and provenance metadata — with reliability that remains disputed.

AI Content Moderation

AI content moderation is the use of machine learning classifiers, hash matching and language models to detect and action harmful user-generated content on online platforms.

AI Data Centres in Malaysia

AI data centres in Malaysia are large-scale computing facilities optimised for artificial intelligence training and inference, concentrated in Johor and the Klang Valley, that have made the country one of Southeast Asia's fastest-growing markets for AI infrastructure.

AI Drug Discovery

AI drug discovery applies machine learning, deep learning, and generative modelling to accelerate the identification, design, and optimisation of therapeutic compounds across the pharmaceutical pipeline.

AI Ethics

AI ethics is the branch of applied ethics addressing the moral dimensions of designing, deploying, and governing artificial intelligence systems — covering fairness, accountability, transparency, privacy, and safety.

AI Guardrails

AI guardrails are runtime safety mechanisms that validate, filter, and enforce policies on large language model inputs and outputs in production systems, preventing harmful content, data leakage, prompt injection, and off-topic behaviour.

AI in Cybersecurity

Artificial intelligence is used on both sides of computer security — to detect and respond to attacks faster than human analysts, and to craft phishing, malware and social-engineering campaigns at scale.

AI in Education

The use of artificial intelligence in teaching and learning — tutoring systems, adaptive practice, assessment support and administrative automation — together with the academic integrity and privacy questions it raises.

AI in Islamic Finance Malaysia

AI in Islamic finance Malaysia refers to the application of artificial intelligence technologies — including machine learning, natural language processing, and generative AI — to Shariah-compliant financial products, institutions, and regulatory processes in Malaysia.

AI in Journalism

AI in journalism refers to the use of artificial intelligence across news gathering, production and distribution — transcription, summarisation, research and personalisation — and the accuracy, transparency, jobs and licensing debates it has raised, including in Malaysian newsrooms.

AI in Malaysian Agriculture

Artificial intelligence is transforming Malaysia's agricultural sector through precision farming, drone monitoring, yield prediction, and supply chain optimisation, with applications spanning palm oil, paddy, rubber, and aquaculture industries.

AI in Malaysian Aviation

The adoption of artificial intelligence across Malaysia's aviation sector — from airline fuel optimisation and airport biometrics to drone regulation and the emerging low-altitude economy.

AI in Malaysian Banking

An overview of artificial intelligence adoption in Malaysian banks, covering fraud detection, customer service automation, credit decisioning, and the regulatory framework set by Bank Negara Malaysia.

AI in Malaysian Construction

AI in Malaysian construction spans building information modelling, AI-assisted safety monitoring, drone surveys and digital twins, backed by CIDB digitalisation programmes and adopted by contractors such as Gamuda and Sunway Construction.

AI in Malaysian Education

The adoption of artificial intelligence in Malaysia's education system spans school-level personalised learning, university AI programmes, educator upskilling, and government-led digital transformation initiatives under the MyDigital Blueprint.

AI in Malaysian Healthcare

The deployment of artificial intelligence across Malaysia's public and private healthcare systems for diagnostics, hospital operations, drug development, and population health, governed by Ministry of Health policy and PDPA requirements.

AI in Malaysian Insurance and Takaful

Artificial intelligence is used across Malaysia's insurance and takaful sector for underwriting, claims assessment, fraud detection and customer service, under Bank Negara Malaysia supervision.

AI in Malaysian Legal Industry

AI in Malaysia's legal industry encompasses the adoption of machine learning, natural language processing, and generative AI tools by law firms, the judiciary, and legal service providers to automate research, drafting, and compliance tasks.

AI in Malaysian Logistics

AI in Malaysian logistics encompasses the application of artificial intelligence to freight forwarding, port operations, last-mile delivery, supply chain optimisation, and customs management across Malaysia's transport network.

AI in Malaysian Manufacturing

Artificial intelligence adoption in Malaysian manufacturing covers predictive maintenance, computer vision quality control, demand forecasting, and supply-chain optimisation across the electronics, automotive, and food sectors.

AI in Malaysian Retail

AI in Malaysian retail encompasses the deployment of machine learning, computer vision, and natural language processing across Malaysia's retail sector, including e-commerce platforms, brick-and-mortar stores, and omnichannel retail operations.

AI in Malaysian Telecommunications

The application of artificial intelligence by Malaysian telecommunications operators to optimise network operations, improve customer experience, detect fraud, and enable enterprise 5G and AI services.

AI in Malaysian Tourism

AI in Malaysian tourism covers the use of artificial intelligence across travel promotion, hospitality and aviation, including AI-powered marketing for Visit Malaysia 2026, trip-planning assistants and multilingual visitor services.

AI in Mathematics

AI in mathematics covers machine-learning systems that prove theorems, discover algorithms and compete in mathematical olympiads, from AlphaGeometry and AlphaProof to the gold-medal-standard systems of 2025.

AI in Real Estate

Artificial intelligence in real estate covers automated valuation models, lead qualification, listing content, virtual staging and transaction automation across property markets.

AI in Sports

The use of machine learning, computer vision and wearable sensor data for performance analysis, injury prevention, officiating and fan engagement in sport.

AI in the Malaysian Automotive Industry

Artificial intelligence in Malaysia's automotive sector covers smart manufacturing at national carmaker plants, in-vehicle driver-assistance systems, and the semiconductor supply chain feeding electric and autonomous vehicles.

AI in the Malaysian Palm Oil Industry

The application of artificial intelligence, computer vision, robotics, and predictive analytics to oil palm cultivation, harvesting, milling, and supply chain traceability in Malaysia.

AI in the Malaysian Public Sector

The adoption of artificial intelligence across Malaysian government agencies to improve public service delivery, administrative efficiency, and data-driven decision-making, coordinated through GovTech Malaysia and national AI governance bodies.

AI Jailbreaking

AI jailbreaking is the use of crafted prompts to bypass the safety guardrails of a large language model and elicit responses its developers designed it to refuse.

AI Literacy

AI literacy is the set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable individuals to understand, evaluate, and use artificial intelligence tools effectively and responsibly in personal, professional, and civic contexts.

AI Malaysia Berhad

AI Malaysia Berhad (AIMB) is Malaysia's national AI lead agency under the Ministry of Digital, established on 28 July 2026 through the institutionalisation of the National AI Office to unify AI policy and implementation nationwide.

AI Meeting Assistants

An AI meeting assistant is a software tool that joins or records meetings, transcribes the conversation and produces summaries, action items and searchable notes automatically.

AI Memory

AI memory refers to the mechanisms that allow artificial intelligence agents to retain, retrieve, and use information across interactions, extending capability beyond a single context window.

AI Music Generation

AI music generation is the use of machine learning models to compose, arrange, or produce music from text prompts or other inputs, spanning full songs with vocals, instrumental tracks, and sound design.

AI Observability

AI observability is the practice of monitoring, tracing and evaluating AI model calls in production, giving teams visibility into prompts, retrievals, tool calls, costs and failures.

AI Parks in Malaysia

AI parks in Malaysia are designated research, commercialisation and infrastructure sites created or proposed to concentrate artificial intelligence development, from MRANTI's AI Park to national roadmap proposals.

AI PC

A personal computer equipped with a dedicated Neural Processing Unit (NPU) designed to accelerate on-device artificial intelligence workloads locally, without requiring cloud connectivity, for tasks such as image generation, speech recognition, and language model inference.

AI Planning

AI planning is the discipline of automatically generating a sequence of actions that an intelligent agent can execute to move from an initial state to a goal, increasingly used inside LLM-based agents to decompose and reason about complex tasks.

AI Red Teaming

A structured adversarial evaluation practice in which testers attempt to elicit harmful, unsafe, or policy-violating behaviour from AI systems in order to surface risks before deployment.

AI Regulation in China

AI regulation in China is built on a series of measures covering algorithmic recommendation, deep synthesis, generative AI services and AI content labelling, administered mainly by the Cyberspace Administration of China.

AI Regulation in Malaysia

An overview of the Malaysian regulatory landscape governing artificial intelligence — covering PDPA, sectoral guidelines, national AI policy, and Malaysia's approach to the global AI governance debate.

AI Regulation in South Korea

AI regulation in South Korea is governed by the AI Framework Act, the first comprehensive artificial intelligence law adopted in the Asia-Pacific region, which took effect in January 2026 and imposes obligations on high-impact AI systems and transparency rules for generative AI.

AI Regulation in the United States

Artificial intelligence in the United States is governed by executive orders, agency guidance and state laws rather than a single federal statute, with policy emphasis swinging between safety-focused and innovation-focused administrations.

AI Safety

AI safety is a field of research and practice concerned with the development of artificial intelligence systems that behave reliably, avoid harmful outputs, and remain aligned with human values, especially as systems become more capable.

AI Search Engines

AI search engines are search tools that use large language models to synthesise a direct, cited answer instead of returning a ranked list of links.

AI Singapore

AI Singapore (AISG) is a national programme launched in 2017 to build Singapore's artificial intelligence ecosystem through research, talent development, and industry adoption, hosted by the National University of Singapore.

AI Slop

Low-quality digital content produced in bulk by generative AI, typically for attention-economy profit or engagement farming; named Word of the Year 2025 by Merriam-Webster.

AI Thailand

AI Thailand refers to Thailand's national strategy, government programmes, and regulatory framework for developing and deploying artificial intelligence, as articulated in the National AI Strategy and Action Plan covering 2022 to 2027.

AI Untuk Rakyat

AI Untuk Rakyat is Malaysia's free national AI literacy programme, launched in January 2024, which has introduced artificial intelligence fundamentals to over a million participants.

AI Video Generation

AI video generation refers to the automated creation of video content from text prompts, images, or other inputs using generative neural networks, enabling synthetic video production without cameras or traditional animation.

AI Water Footprint

The volume of fresh water consumed by artificial intelligence workloads, primarily for data-centre cooling and electricity generation, measured per training run, per model query and per facility.

AI Watermarking

AI watermarking refers to techniques for embedding detectable signals into AI-generated content to establish provenance, enable detection, and support content authenticity verification across images, audio, video, and text.

AI Weather Forecasting

AI weather forecasting is the use of machine-learning models trained on historical atmospheric data to predict weather, a field whose leading systems now match or exceed traditional physics-based forecasts on many measures while running in minutes on a single accelerator.

AI winter

An AI winter is a period of reduced funding and attention for artificial intelligence research, typically following a cycle of inflated expectations and disappointed delivery.

AI21 Labs

An Israeli artificial intelligence company founded in 2017 that develops large language models, including the Jurassic and Jamba families, and enterprise agentic platforms such as Maestro.

Aider

Aider is an open-source, terminal-based AI pair programming tool that connects large language models directly to a local git repository, with automatic commits and repository mapping.

AlexNet

AlexNet is an eight-layer convolutional neural network that won the 2012 ImageNet visual recognition challenge by a record margin and is widely credited with starting the modern deep learning era.

Algorithmic Auditing

The systematic examination of AI systems for bias, safety, compliance and performance by internal teams or independent third parties, now increasingly required by regulation.

Alibaba AI

Alibaba AI refers to the artificial intelligence research, infrastructure and applications of Alibaba Group, including the Qwen family of open-weight large language models and the Alibaba Cloud platform.

AlphaEvolve

AlphaEvolve is a Gemini-powered evolutionary coding agent from Google DeepMind that discovers and optimises algorithms by iteratively proposing code changes and scoring them with automated evaluators.

AlphaFold

AlphaFold is an AI system developed by Google DeepMind that predicts the three-dimensional structure of proteins from their amino acid sequences, achieving accuracy comparable to experimental methods.

AlphaGo

AlphaGo was a computer Go program developed by DeepMind that became the first AI system to defeat a top professional Go player, culminating in its historic 2016 match against Lee Sedol in Seoul.

Always-On Agents

Always-on agents are AI agents that keep a goal, memory and app connections between conversations and start work without a fresh prompt — a product category that emerged when every major lab shipped one between May and September 2026.

Amazon AI

Amazon's artificial intelligence business spans the Nova foundation model family, the Bedrock model platform, the Strands agent toolkit and a major equity stake in Anthropic.

Amazon Bedrock

Amazon Bedrock is a fully managed AWS service that provides enterprise-grade access to over 100 foundation models from leading AI providers through a unified API, enabling organisations to build, customise, and scale generative AI applications without managing infrastructure.

Amazon Q Developer

Amazon Q Developer is the AI coding assistant from Amazon Web Services, launched in 2023 and now being wound down in favour of AWS's Kiro agentic development environment.

Amazon SageMaker

Amazon SageMaker is a fully managed cloud platform from AWS that provides an integrated environment for building, training, and deploying machine learning models at scale, incorporating tools for data preparation, model development, MLOps, and generative AI.

AMD

AMD is an American semiconductor company whose Instinct data-centre accelerators and ROCm software platform are the main merchant-chip alternative to NVIDIA for AI training and inference.

Anomaly Detection

A class of machine learning techniques that identifies rare events, observations, or patterns that differ significantly from the majority of data, used for fraud, intrusion, and fault detection.

Anthropic

Anthropic is an American AI safety company and large language model developer founded in 2021 by former OpenAI researchers, best known for developing the Claude family of AI assistants and the Constitutional AI alignment technique.

Apple Intelligence

Apple Intelligence is Apple's system of generative AI features for iPhone, iPad and Mac, combining on-device foundation models with a private cloud-computing layer for tasks that require larger models.

ARC-AGI

ARC-AGI is a benchmark series created by François Chollet to measure fluid intelligence — the ability to solve novel reasoning problems from minimal examples — rather than accumulated knowledge.

Arize AI

Arize AI is an American ML observability and LLM evaluation platform that helps teams monitor, debug, and improve artificial intelligence models in production, offering both open-source and enterprise-grade tooling.

Arm Holdings

Arm Holdings is a British semiconductor design company that licenses processor architectures to chipmakers worldwide, and whose designs are found in the overwhelming majority of the world's smartphones.

Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)

Artificial general intelligence is a hypothetical form of AI that can understand, learn, and apply knowledge across the full range of tasks a human can perform, rather than being limited to narrow domains.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence processes by computer systems, encompassing learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding.

Artificial Intelligence in China

Artificial intelligence in China is a state-directed ecosystem of world-scale model developers, a domestic semiconductor supply chain built up under US export controls, and the world's largest base of generative AI users, guided by a policy programme known as AI Plus.

Artificial Intelligence in India

Artificial intelligence in India spans a fast-growing ecosystem of research institutions, IT services firms and startups, anchored by the IndiaAI Mission's subsidised compute programme, the country's DPDP data-protection framework and the 2026 AI Impact Summit in New Delhi.

Artificial Intelligence in Indonesia

Artificial intelligence in Indonesia is guided by the National AI Strategy 2020-2045 and a 2025-2029 roadmap, alongside major data centre investment and the Personal Data Protection Law.

Artificial Intelligence in Japan

Artificial intelligence in Japan combines a promotion-oriented AI Act, the Society 5.0 vision, leading robotics and semiconductor programmes, and sovereign-AI partnerships such as the SoftBank and OpenAI joint venture.

Artificial Intelligence in South Korea

Artificial intelligence in South Korea combines the world's leading memory-chip industry, a sovereign AI infrastructure build-out measured in hundreds of billions of dollars, and Asia's first comprehensive AI statute, the AI Basic Act in force since January 2026.

Artificial Intelligence in the Malaysian Oil and Gas Industry

The application of artificial intelligence across Malaysia's oil and gas sector, spanning exploration, production, maintenance and safety, led primarily by Petronas and its technology partners.

Artificial Intelligence in the Philippines

AI in the Philippines is governed by the National AI Strategy (NAIS-PH), the Data Privacy Act and sectoral regulator guidance, with no comprehensive AI statute enacted as of 2026.

Artificial Intelligence in Vietnam

An overview of artificial intelligence development in Vietnam, including its national AI strategy, sovereign AI infrastructure led by FPT and Viettel, and the country's ambition to rank among Southeast Asia's leading AI nations.

ASEAN AI Governance

ASEAN AI governance refers to the regional frameworks, guidelines, and policy initiatives adopted by Southeast Asian nations to promote responsible, trustworthy, and interoperable artificial intelligence development and deployment.

ASML

ASML Holding N.V. is a Dutch manufacturer of photolithography systems and the world's only supplier of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography machines, the equipment used to print the most advanced semiconductor chips.

Attention Mechanism

A neural network technique that enables models to dynamically weight the relevance of different parts of an input sequence when producing each output element, forming the core of transformer architectures.

Autoencoder

An autoencoder is a type of artificial neural network trained to reconstruct its input through a compressed internal representation, used for dimensionality reduction, feature learning, and anomaly detection.

AutoGen

AutoGen is an open-source multi-agent conversation framework developed by Microsoft Research that enables developers to build LLM applications where multiple AI agents communicate with each other to accomplish complex tasks collaboratively.

AutoGPT

AutoGPT is an open-source autonomous AI agent framework, first released in 2023, that became one of the earliest and most visible demonstrations of GPT-4-based task autonomy.

AutoML

AutoML (Automated Machine Learning) is the process of automating the selection, composition, and tuning of machine learning algorithms and pipelines, enabling practitioners to build effective models with reduced manual effort.

Autonomous Agents

Autonomous AI agents are software systems that use large language models as a reasoning core, enabling them to plan multi-step tasks, use external tools, maintain memory, and take actions to achieve goals with minimal human intervention.

Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous vehicles are road vehicles that use artificial intelligence, sensors and onboard computing to drive with limited or no human involvement, ranging from advanced driver-assistance features to fully driverless robotaxis and delivery fleets.

Autonomous Weapons Systems

Autonomous weapons systems are weapons that can select and engage targets without meaningful human intervention, and have been the subject of UN negotiations for a decade.

AWS Asia Pacific (Malaysia) Region

The AWS Asia Pacific (Malaysia) Region is the first cloud region operated by Amazon Web Services in Malaysia, launched on 21 August 2024 with three availability zones and a planned US$6.2 billion investment.

AWS Trainium

AWS Trainium is Amazon Web Services' family of purpose-built AI accelerator chips for training and serving large models, positioned as a lower-cost alternative to general-purpose GPUs.

Azure AI

Azure AI is Microsoft's integrated portfolio of artificial intelligence services hosted on the Azure cloud platform, encompassing pre-built cognitive APIs, a managed machine learning platform, large language model access, and enterprise AI development tools.

Backpropagation

Backpropagation is the primary algorithm for training neural networks, computing gradients of a loss function with respect to each weight by applying the chain rule of calculus in reverse through the network layers.

Baidu AI

Baidu AI is the artificial intelligence portfolio of China's dominant search engine, built around the ERNIE family of large language models, cloud services and autonomous-driving technology.

Batch Normalisation

Batch normalisation is a deep learning technique that normalises the activations of each layer within a mini-batch to accelerate training and improve model stability.

Bayesian Inference

Bayesian inference is a statistical method that uses Bayes' theorem to update the probability of a hypothesis as new evidence becomes available, providing a principled framework for reasoning under uncertainty.

Beam Search

Beam search is a heuristic search algorithm used in sequence generation that keeps a fixed number of the most promising partial sequences at each step, balancing output quality against computational cost.

BERT

BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) is a pre-trained transformer-based language model developed by Google that reads text bidirectionally to understand word context in natural language tasks.

Bias-Variance Tradeoff

The bias-variance tradeoff is the fundamental tension in supervised learning between models that are too simple to capture the underlying pattern (high bias) and models that are too sensitive to training data (high variance).

Black Forest Labs

Black Forest Labs is a German AI laboratory founded in 2024 by researchers behind latent diffusion, best known for the FLUX family of image and video generation models.

Bletchley Declaration

The Bletchley Declaration is a non-binding international statement on frontier AI safety agreed by 28 countries and the European Union at the AI Safety Summit held at Bletchley Park in November 2023.

BLOOM

A 176-billion-parameter multilingual large language model released in 2022 by the BigScience workshop as a transparent, openly documented alternative to proprietary models.

BM25

BM25 (Best Matching 25) is a probabilistic ranking function used in information retrieval that scores documents based on query term frequency, inverse document frequency, and document length normalisation.

BNM AI Guidelines

Bank Negara Malaysia's AI guidelines provide a regulatory framework governing the responsible adoption of artificial intelligence in Malaysia's financial sector, covering risk management, governance, and accountability requirements for licensed institutions.

Bolt.new

Bolt.new is a browser-based AI development platform from StackBlitz that generates, runs and deploys complete web applications from natural-language prompts, powered by WebContainers technology.

Boston Dynamics

Boston Dynamics is an American robotics company founded in 1992, known for the Spot quadruped, the Stretch warehouse robot and the Atlas humanoid, whose production version entered manufacturing in 2026 under majority owner Hyundai Motor Group.

Broadcom

Broadcom is a US semiconductor and software company that designs custom AI accelerators (XPUs) and networking chips for hyperscalers, making it the principal merchant alternative to NVIDIA for AI silicon.

ByteDance AI

ByteDance AI refers to the artificial intelligence research and products of ByteDance, the Chinese technology company behind TikTok and Douyin, including the Seed foundation-model team, the Doubao assistant and the Seedance video models.

C2PA and Content Provenance

C2PA is an open technical standard for cryptographically signed content credentials that record the origin, edit history and AI involvement of digital media.

California AI Regulation

California is the most active US state regulator of artificial intelligence, home to frontier-model legislation such as SB 53 and training-data disclosure laws such as AB 2013.

Cambricon Technologies

Cambricon Technologies is a Chinese AI chip designer listed on the Shanghai STAR Market whose accelerators have become central to China's push to replace imported Nvidia hardware.

Canary Deployment

Canary deployment is a progressive model release strategy in which a new version is exposed to a small subset of production traffic, allowing teams to validate performance and catch failures before a full rollout.

Canva

Canva is an Australian visual communication platform whose Magic Studio artificial intelligence suite — image and video generation, writing assistance and design automation — is used by hundreds of millions of people worldwide.

CapCut

CapCut is ByteDance's video editing application, known in China as JianYing, whose AI-assisted editing and generative video features are used by creators worldwide.

Catastrophic Forgetting

Catastrophic forgetting is the tendency of neural networks to abruptly lose previously learned knowledge when trained on new data, and it is the central obstacle to continual learning.

Causal AI

Causal AI is an approach to artificial intelligence that incorporates causal reasoning into machine learning models, enabling them to go beyond correlation-based prediction to answer questions about interventions and counterfactual outcomes.

Cerebras Systems

An American AI hardware company that builds wafer-scale processors, using an entire silicon wafer as a single chip to accelerate deep learning training and to deliver very high-speed large language model inference.

Chain-of-Thought Prompting

A prompt engineering technique that improves large language model reasoning on complex tasks by instructing the model to generate explicit intermediate reasoning steps before arriving at a final answer.

Character.AI

Character.AI is an AI companion platform where users create and chat with custom persona chatbots, and it became one of the first services to bar under-18s from open-ended AI chat.

Chatbot

A chatbot is a software application designed to simulate human conversation through text or voice, ranging from simple rule-based systems to sophisticated AI assistants powered by large language models.

ChatGLM

A family of open-source bilingual (Chinese-English) large language models developed by Zhipu AI and Tsinghua University, known for strong reasoning capabilities, large context windows, and enterprise-grade open-weight releases under MIT licensing.

ChatGPT

ChatGPT is a generative AI chatbot developed by OpenAI that popularised conversational artificial intelligence after its release in November 2022 and became one of the fastest-adopted software products in history.

Chinese Room Argument

The Chinese Room is John Searle's 1980 thought experiment arguing that manipulating symbols by rules is not the same as understanding them — the central critique of strong AI.

Chroma

An open-source vector database designed for embedding-based applications, optimised for developer ergonomics and increasingly for large-scale serverless retrieval through a 2025 Rust-core rewrite.

Civitai

Civitai is an open online platform for sharing, discovering and running generative AI image models — especially LoRA fine-tunes built on Stable Diffusion and Flux — founded in 2022 by Justin Maier.

Claude (Language Model)

A family of large language models developed by Anthropic, designed with a focus on safety, helpfulness, and Constitutional AI training methods for enterprise and consumer use.

Claude Code

Claude Code is Anthropic's agentic coding tool that lets developers delegate software engineering tasks — reading code, editing files, running commands and testing — to the Claude language model from the terminal.

Claude Sonnet 5.5

Claude Sonnet 5.5 is Anthropic's mid-tier frontier model, released in September 2026 as the second member of the Claude 5.5 family, offering near-Opus coding performance at lower cost and 30% faster output.

Cline

Cline is a free, open-source AI coding agent that runs in code editors, terminals and as an SDK, able to read and write files, execute commands and browse the web with human approval, using any large language model the user chooses.

CLIP

CLIP (Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training) is a multimodal neural network model developed by OpenAI that learns visual concepts from natural language descriptions by jointly training an image encoder and a text encoder on 400 million image-text pairs.

Code Generation

AI code generation is the use of large language models to automatically produce, complete, or transform source code from natural language descriptions, enabling assisted and autonomous software development.

Cohere

Cohere is a Canadian AI company specialising in enterprise large language models, offering Command, Embed, and Rerank model families alongside secure deployment infrastructure designed for regulated industries.

Colorado AI Act

The Colorado AI Act (SB 24-205) was the first comprehensive US state law regulating high-risk artificial intelligence; it was replaced in 2026 by a narrower disclosure-focused statute, SB 26-189.

Comet ML

Comet ML is a cloud-based MLOps platform for tracking machine learning experiments, managing model versions, monitoring production models, and evaluating large language model applications.

ComfyUI

ComfyUI is a free and open-source node-based interface for diffusion models such as Stable Diffusion and Flux, widely used for image, video and audio generation workflows.

Common Crawl

Common Crawl is a US nonprofit foundation that publishes a free, open repository of monthly web crawls — more than 10 petabytes of pages — used as raw material for most major AI training datasets.

Computer Vision

Computer vision is the field of artificial intelligence that enables machines to interpret and act upon visual information from the world — including images, video, and depth data.

Computer-Use Agents

Computer-use agents are AI systems that operate computers through their graphical interfaces — reading screens, clicking, typing and navigating software — instead of relying on purpose-built API integrations.

Concept Drift

The phenomenon in which the statistical relationship a machine learning model learned between inputs and outputs changes over time, degrading the model's accuracy in production.

Confusion Matrix

A confusion matrix is a table that summarises the performance of a classification model by comparing predicted labels against true labels, forming the basis for metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score.

Consistency Models

A family of generative models that produce outputs in one or a few sampling steps by learning to map any point on a diffusion trajectory to the same origin.

Constitutional AI

Constitutional AI is an alignment method developed by Anthropic that trains language models to follow a set of written ethical principles by using the model itself to critique and revise its own outputs, reducing dependence on human feedback for harmlessness.

Context Engineering

Context engineering is the practice of selecting, organising and maintaining the tokens supplied to a large language model at inference time so that it behaves reliably.

Context Rot

Context rot is the degradation of large language model performance as the amount of input text grows, even when the relevant information is present within the context window.

Context Window

The maximum number of tokens — including the prompt, prior conversation, retrieved documents, and the model's own output — that a large language model can process in a single forward pass.

Continual Learning

Continual learning is a machine learning paradigm in which models incrementally acquire knowledge from sequential tasks or data streams without forgetting previously learned information, addressing the stability-plasticity trade-off inherent in neural networks.

Contrastive Learning

Contrastive learning is a self-supervised machine learning paradigm that trains models to produce similar representations for related data pairs and dissimilar representations for unrelated pairs, enabling powerful feature learning without labelled data.

ControlNet

ControlNet is a neural network architecture that adds spatial conditioning to text-to-image diffusion models, letting users guide image generation with inputs such as edge maps, human poses, and depth maps.

Convolutional Neural Network

A convolutional neural network (CNN) is a type of deep neural network that uses convolutional layers to automatically learn spatial hierarchies of features from grid-structured data, most commonly images.

Core ML

Core ML is Apple's on-device machine learning framework that enables iOS, macOS, watchOS, and tvOS applications to integrate pre-trained models for tasks including image classification, natural language processing, and sound analysis.

CoreWeave

CoreWeave is a US neocloud provider that rents NVIDIA GPU clusters optimised for AI training and inference, positioned as a specialised alternative to hyperscaler cloud platforms.

Cosine Similarity

Cosine similarity is a measure of similarity between two non-zero vectors equal to the cosine of the angle between them, widely used to compare embeddings in search and machine learning.

Coze

Coze is a no-code platform for building AI agents and chatbots, developed by ByteDance, that lets users create, customise and publish conversational assistants to messaging channels without writing code.

CrewAI

CrewAI is an open-source Python framework for orchestrating multiple AI agents in role-based collaborative workflows, enabling teams of specialised agents to tackle complex tasks through structured coordination and communication.

Cross-Entropy Loss

Cross-entropy loss is the standard objective function for training classification models, measuring the divergence between a predicted probability distribution and the true distribution of labels.

Cross-validation

Cross-validation is a statistical method for evaluating machine learning models by partitioning data into complementary training and validation subsets across repeated folds.

CUDA

NVIDIA's parallel computing platform and programming model that lets developers use GPUs for general-purpose computation, underpinning most modern deep learning frameworks.

Curriculum Learning

A machine learning training strategy that presents examples to a model in a deliberate order — typically easy to hard — to improve convergence speed and final model quality.

Cursor (Code Editor)

An AI-powered code editor and coding agent developed by Anysphere that lets developers write, edit and refactor software using natural-language instructions, built on a fork of Visual Studio Code.

Cyberjaya

A planned technology city in Selangor, Malaysia, forming the nucleus of the Multimedia Super Corridor and home to MDEC, AI research initiatives, and a growing cluster of AI-ready data centres.

CyberSecurity Malaysia

CyberSecurity Malaysia is the national cyber security specialist agency under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, responsible for incident response, digital forensics, certification, and capacity building, including emerging risks from artificial intelligence.

d-Matrix

d-Matrix is a Santa Clara AI chip company focused on inference, using in-memory dataflow compute to serve generative AI workloads more cheaply than GPUs.

DALL-E

DALL-E is a series of text-to-image generative AI models developed by OpenAI that create photorealistic and artistic images from natural language prompts using diffusion and language-vision alignment techniques.

Data Augmentation

A set of techniques that expand a training dataset by creating modified copies of existing examples, helping deep learning models generalise better and reducing overfitting.

Data Contamination

The unintended overlap between a model's training data and its evaluation benchmarks, which inflates benchmark scores and undermines the validity of AI comparisons.

Data Labelling

Data labelling is the process of attaching meaningful tags, classes, or annotations to raw data so that supervised machine learning models can learn to predict those labels on unseen examples.

Data Pipeline

A data pipeline is an automated sequence of processes that ingests, transforms, and delivers data from source systems to destination systems for analysis, machine learning, or operational use.

Data Poisoning

Data poisoning is an adversarial attack in which a malicious actor contaminates an AI model's training data to degrade its performance or implant hidden behaviour.

Databricks

Databricks is an American data and artificial intelligence company founded by the creators of Apache Spark, known for its lakehouse platform and valued at US$188 billion as of July 2026.

DataOps

DataOps is an engineering methodology that applies agile, DevOps, and lean manufacturing principles to data pipelines, aiming for rapid, reliable, and repeatable delivery of analytics and machine learning data.

DataRobot

An American enterprise AI platform company that provides automated machine learning, model deployment, monitoring, and generative AI tools, headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts.

Decision Tree

A decision tree is a non-parametric supervised learning model that predicts an outcome by recursively splitting data into branches based on feature values, used for both classification and regression.

Deep Learning

Deep learning is a subfield of machine learning that uses multi-layered artificial neural networks to learn hierarchical representations from data, enabling state-of-the-art performance across vision, language, and speech tasks.

Deep Research

Deep research is a class of agentic AI capability that performs multi-step searches across the web and synthesises the findings into a long-form, cited report.

Deepfake

A deepfake is synthetic media in which a person's likeness or voice is fabricated or altered using deep learning, typically generative adversarial networks or diffusion models, to depict events that never occurred.

DeepSeek

A Chinese artificial intelligence company founded in 2023, known for developing open-source large language models including DeepSeek-R1 and DeepSeek-V3 that achieved performance competitive with leading Western AI systems.

DeepSpeed

DeepSpeed is an open-source deep learning optimisation library developed by Microsoft that enables efficient distributed training and inference of large-scale neural networks through memory and compute optimisations.

Devin (AI Software Engineer)

Devin is an autonomous AI software engineering agent built by Cognition AI that plans and completes coding tasks — writing, testing and deploying software inside its own sandboxed environment.

Differential Privacy

Differential privacy is a mathematical framework for analysing data that guarantees the output of a computation reveals little about any single individual, achieved by adding calibrated random noise to limit each record's influence.

Diffusion Model

A class of generative AI models that learn to reverse a gradual noise-addition process, enabling the generation of high-quality images, audio, and video from random noise guided by text or other conditioning signals.

Dify

Dify is an open-source platform for building production LLM applications, combining visual workflow building, RAG pipelines and LLMOps tooling in a single self-hostable stack.

Digital Nasional Berhad

Digital Nasional Berhad (DNB) is Malaysia's government-owned special purpose vehicle that built and operates the country's single wholesale 5G network, now operating alongside a second network under the national dual-network model.

Digital Twin

A digital twin is a continuously updated virtual representation of a physical object, process, or system that mirrors its real-world counterpart in real time to enable simulation, monitoring, and prediction.

Direct Preference Optimization

Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) is a stable, computationally efficient algorithm for aligning large language models with human preferences by directly optimising a policy from comparison data, without training a separate reward model or using reinforcement learning.

Distributed Training

The set of techniques for splitting a machine-learning model's training across multiple accelerators and machines, required to train modern large language models.

Domain Adaptation

Domain adaptation is a machine learning technique that transfers a model trained on a labelled source domain to perform effectively on a related but distinct target domain with limited or no labelled target data, addressing distribution shift between domains.

Doubao

A suite of large language models and consumer AI assistant developed by ByteDance, the parent company of TikTok, reaching 159 million monthly active users and embedded across ByteDance's content, social, and device ecosystems.

Dropout

A regularisation technique in deep learning that randomly deactivates neurons during training, preventing co-adaptation and improving generalisation. Introduced by Hinton and colleagues in 2012 and formalised in 2014.

DSPy

An open-source framework from Stanford for programming, rather than manually prompting, language models, using declarative signatures and modules whose prompts and weights are automatically optimised by compilers called optimisers.

e-KYC

Electronic know-your-customer (e-KYC) is the use of digital document checks and biometric verification to confirm a customer's identity remotely instead of in person.

Edge AI

Edge AI is the deployment of artificial intelligence algorithms and inference workloads directly on local devices or edge computing nodes rather than in centralised cloud data centres, enabling low-latency, privacy-preserving, and bandwidth-efficient AI applications.

ElevenLabs

ElevenLabs is an AI audio research and deployment company founded in 2022 that develops text-to-speech, voice cloning, dubbing, and conversational voice agent technologies based on proprietary deep learning models.

ELIZA

ELIZA, written at MIT between 1964 and 1967, was one of the first chatbots — a pattern-matching program whose illusion of understanding gave its name to the ELIZA effect.

Embedding

An embedding is a dense numerical vector representation of data — such as text, images, or audio — that encodes semantic meaning in a continuous high-dimensional space, enabling machine learning models to measure similarity and relationships.

Emergent Abilities

Capabilities that appear in large language models only once they reach a certain scale, and which are not present in smaller models, along with the debate over whether such abilities are real or measurement artifacts.

Encoder-Decoder Architecture

A neural network design pattern that compresses an input sequence into an internal representation using an encoder, and then generates an output sequence from that representation using a decoder, foundational to machine translation, summarisation, and many other sequence-to-sequence tasks.

Ensemble Learning

Ensemble learning is a machine learning technique that combines the predictions of multiple models to achieve higher accuracy and robustness than any single constituent model could attain on its own.

ERNIE Bot

A large language model and conversational AI assistant developed by Baidu, built on the ERNIE (Enhanced Representation through Knowledge Integration) foundation model series and integrated across Baidu's search, cloud, and enterprise platforms.

EU AI Act

The EU AI Act is the world's first comprehensive legal framework regulating artificial intelligence, classifying AI systems by risk level and imposing obligations on developers and deployers operating in the European Union.

Explainable AI

Explainable AI (XAI) refers to methods and techniques that make the decisions and predictions of artificial intelligence systems interpretable and understandable to human users, addressing the opacity of complex machine learning models.

Face Recognition

Face recognition is a biometric technology that identifies or verifies individuals by analysing facial features from images or video, widely used in security, banking, and immigration.

FAISS

FAISS (Facebook AI Similarity Search) is an open-source library developed by Meta AI for efficient similarity search and clustering of dense vectors at scale, enabling fast nearest-neighbour retrieval across millions or billions of embeddings.

Falcon LLM

A family of open-weight large language models developed by the Technology Innovation Institute (TII) in Abu Dhabi, released under permissive licenses and used widely across enterprise and research applications.

Feature Store

A centralised data platform for storing, serving, and managing machine learning features so that they can be reused consistently across training and online inference.

Federated Learning

Federated learning is a machine learning paradigm in which a model is trained across multiple decentralised devices or servers holding local data, without exchanging the raw data itself, preserving privacy while enabling collaborative model improvement.

Few-Shot Learning

Few-shot learning is a machine learning paradigm in which a model learns to perform new tasks or recognise new classes from only a small number of labelled training examples, often just one to five samples per class.

Figma Make

Figma Make is Figma's AI app builder that turns natural-language prompts and existing design frames into working, editable web applications.

Figure AI

Figure AI is an American robotics company building general-purpose humanoid robots powered by its Helix vision-language-action model, deployed in industrial settings including BMW manufacturing plants.

Fine-Tuning

The process of further training a pre-trained machine learning model on a smaller, task-specific dataset to adapt its weights for a particular domain, task, or desired behaviour.

Fireworks AI

Fireworks AI is an American AI infrastructure company that operates a high-performance inference cloud for running open-weight language, image and embedding models at production scale.

Flash Attention

FlashAttention is an IO-aware exact attention algorithm that restructures the standard attention computation into memory-efficient tiled blocks, dramatically reducing GPU memory usage and wall-clock time for transformer models on long sequences.

Flow Matching

Flow matching is a simulation-free training framework for generative models that learns a velocity field transporting noise to data along a prescribed probability path, and underpins modern diffusion systems.

Flowise

Flowise is an open-source, low-code platform for building LLM applications and AI agents through a drag-and-drop visual interface.

FLUX

FLUX is a family of text-to-image and image-editing generative models developed by Black Forest Labs, known for prompt fidelity, legible in-image text, and widely adopted open-weight releases.

Foundation Model

A large-scale AI model pretrained on broad, diverse datasets and designed to be adapted to a wide range of downstream tasks through fine-tuning, prompting, or retrieval augmentation.

Fraud Detection

Fraud detection is the application of data analysis, machine learning, and AI to identify deceptive or unauthorised transactions, activities, and behaviours in financial, digital, and commercial systems.

Function Calling

Function calling is the structured mechanism by which a large language model returns a JSON-formatted invocation of a named function with typed arguments, enabling reliable integration of LLMs with external systems.

G42

G42 is an Abu Dhabi-based artificial intelligence holding company whose subsidiaries build sovereign cloud infrastructure, enterprise AI products and Arabic-language models.

Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU)

A gated recurrent unit is a recurrent neural network component that uses reset and update gates to model sequences efficiently while mitigating the vanishing gradient problem.

Gaussian Process

A non-parametric Bayesian model that defines a distribution over functions, widely used in regression, optimisation, and uncertainty quantification.

GDPR

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is the European Union's data protection law, in force since 2018, that governs how organisations — including AI developers — collect, use and transfer personal data, and has become a global reference point for privacy rules such as Malaysia's PDPA.

Gemini

Gemini is a family of multimodal large language models developed by Google DeepMind, designed to natively process and generate text, code, images, audio, and video across a range of model sizes.

Gemini 3.5

Gemini 3.5 is Google DeepMind's family of frontier agentic models, launched at Google I/O 2026 with 3.5 Flash as the first release, designed for long-horizon agent and coding tasks.

Gemini 4 Argon

Gemini 4 Argon is Google DeepMind's frontier language model, released in September 2026 as the first model of Google's fourth-generation Gemini family.

Gemini CLI

Google's open-source terminal AI agent that brings the Gemini models into the command line for coding, file editing, research and automation, with a generous free tier and MCP support.

Gemini Robotics

Gemini Robotics is Google DeepMind's family of vision-language-action models that let robots perceive, reason about and act in the physical world, built on the Gemini foundation models.

Gemini Spark

Gemini Spark is Google's always-on personal AI agent that runs 24/7 on Google Cloud virtual machines, acting on Gmail, Calendar and Drive on the user's behalf rather than only while a chat window is open.

Gemma

Gemma is a family of open-weight large language models developed by Google DeepMind, built on similar technology to the Gemini series and available for deployment on hardware ranging from laptops to cloud infrastructure.

Generative Adversarial Network

A generative adversarial network (GAN) is a class of machine learning framework in which two neural networks, a generator and a discriminator, compete against each other to produce synthetic data indistinguishable from real examples.

Generative AI

Generative AI refers to artificial intelligence systems capable of producing new content — text, images, audio, video, or code — by learning the underlying distribution of training data.

Generative Engine Optimisation

Generative Engine Optimisation (GEO) is the practice of structuring online content so that AI-powered answer engines cite it when generating responses to user questions.

Genspark

Genspark is an AI search and agent company whose 'agentic search' product compiles answers using AI agents that browse, research and produce reports rather than returning ranked links.

GGUF

GGUF (GPT-Generated Unified Format) is a single-file binary format for storing and running quantised large language models, used by llama.cpp, Ollama and other local inference tools.

GitHub Copilot

GitHub Copilot is an AI pair-programming tool developed by GitHub and Microsoft that suggests code completions, answers questions, and autonomously edits code across files using large language models.

Google Antigravity

Google Antigravity is Google's agentic software-development platform, launched in November 2025, which replaces the classic IDE with agent-first surfaces that plan, write, test and verify code across editor, terminal and browser.

Google Colab

Google Colab is a free cloud-hosted Jupyter notebook environment from Google that runs Python in the browser with access to GPUs and TPUs, widely used for machine learning education and prototyping.

Google DeepMind

Google DeepMind is an AI research laboratory owned by Alphabet Inc., formed in 2023 by the merger of Google Brain and DeepMind, and responsible for developing foundational AI systems including the Gemini family of models, AlphaFold, and AlphaGo.

Google Tensor Processing Unit

The Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) is a Google-designed application-specific integrated circuit for neural network training and inference, first deployed internally in 2015 and now sold as cloud infrastructure competing with NVIDIA GPUs.

Google Vertex AI

Google Vertex AI is a unified machine learning platform on Google Cloud that consolidates data preparation, model training, deployment, and monitoring for both custom-built models and Google's foundation models including Gemini.

GPQA Diamond

GPQA Diamond is a 198-question subset of the GPQA benchmark of expert-written science problems, designed to be "Google-proof" and to separate models that reason from models that retrieve.

GPT

GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) is a family of autoregressive language models developed by OpenAI that popularised large-scale pre-training and underpins ChatGPT.

GPT-4

GPT-4 is a large multimodal language model developed by OpenAI, released in March 2023, that accepts both image and text inputs and demonstrates human-level performance on numerous professional and academic benchmarks.

GPT-5

GPT-5 is OpenAI's fifth-generation multimodal large language model, released in August 2025, that unifies fast responses and deliberate reasoning within a single system.

GPT-6

GPT-6 is the sixth generation of OpenAI's GPT family of large language models, released on 3 September 2026 with the flagship GPT-6 Astra model and later expanded with the cheaper GPT-6 Sol and Luna tiers.

GPU Cluster

A GPU cluster is a networked group of servers, each containing one or more graphics processing units, purpose-built to accelerate parallel computation workloads such as deep learning training and large-scale AI inference.

Grab

Grab is a Southeast Asian technology company founded in Malaysia as MyTeksi in 2012 that grew into the region's leading superapp and runs a large in-house artificial intelligence effort, including an AI Centre of Excellence and a partnership with OpenAI.

Gradient Boosting

A machine learning ensemble technique that builds predictive models sequentially, where each new model corrects the errors of its predecessors using gradient descent optimisation.

Gradient Descent

Gradient descent is an iterative optimisation algorithm that minimises a loss function by repeatedly updating model parameters in the direction of the steepest descent, as defined by the negative gradient.

Gradio

Gradio is an open-source Python library for building and sharing web interfaces for machine-learning models and data applications, maintained by Hugging Face since 2021.

Graph Neural Network

A class of deep learning models designed to operate on graph-structured data, enabling nodes to aggregate and propagate information across their neighbourhoods through a message-passing mechanism.

Graphcore

A British semiconductor company that designs the Intelligence Processing Unit (IPU), a processor architecture built specifically for machine learning, now part of SoftBank Group.

GraphRAG

A retrieval-augmented generation technique that builds a knowledge graph of entities and relationships from a document collection, enabling AI systems to answer multi-hop and whole-corpus questions that plain vector search handles poorly.

Green AI

Green AI is an approach to artificial intelligence that prioritises energy efficiency and environmental sustainability across the model lifecycle, aiming to reduce the carbon footprint, power, and water consumption of training and inference.

Grok

Grok is a series of large language models developed by xAI, Elon Musk's AI company, featuring real-time web integration, advanced reasoning modes, and deep tool-use capabilities.

Grokking

Grokking is a machine-learning phenomenon in which a neural network abruptly begins to generalise to unseen data long after it has already fitted the training set, a delayed transition also known as delayed generalisation.

Groq

Groq is an American AI inference company that developed the Language Processing Unit (LPU), a custom silicon architecture optimised for high-throughput, low-latency inference of large language models using on-chip SRAM rather than external DRAM.

Group Relative Policy Optimization

Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) is a critic-free reinforcement-learning algorithm introduced by DeepSeek in 2024 that estimates advantages from groups of sampled answers and was used to train the DeepSeek-R1 reasoning models.

Grouped-Query Attention (GQA)

An attention variant that partitions query heads into groups sharing a single set of keys and values, reducing memory bandwidth during inference while retaining most of the quality of full multi-head attention.

Hallucination (AI)

A phenomenon in which an artificial intelligence system generates output that is factually incorrect, fabricated, or unsupported by its input, while presenting it with apparent confidence.

Haystack

Haystack is deepset's open-source Python framework for building production LLM and retrieval-augmented generation pipelines, using typed components wired into serialisable pipeline graphs.

Helicone

Helicone is an open-source LLM observability and gateway platform that enables developers to monitor, debug, and optimise large language model applications in production with minimal integration effort.

HeyGen

HeyGen is an American AI video company known for photorealistic avatars and one-click video translation, reporting US$200 million in annual revenue and 30 million users by 2026.

Hidden Markov Model

A statistical model that represents systems with unobservable (hidden) states that emit observable outputs, used widely in speech recognition, bioinformatics, and time-series analysis.

Higgsfield

Higgsfield is a generative AI video company founded by former Snap computer-vision executive Alex Mashrabov, building text-to-video tools for marketing that route between open and closed video models.

High Bandwidth Memory

High Bandwidth Memory (HBM) is a family of 3D-stacked DRAM technologies that supply the extreme memory bandwidth required by AI accelerators, and has become a critical component and supply-chain battleground of the artificial intelligence boom.

History of Artificial Intelligence

The history of artificial intelligence traces the field from early cybernetics and the 1956 Dartmouth workshop, through the rise and fall of symbolic AI and expert systems, to the deep learning and generative AI era of the 2020s.

HRD Corp AI Training in Malaysia

HRD Corp, the Human Resource Development Corporation of Malaysia, funds employer-sponsored training in artificial intelligence, data science, and digital skills through a statutory levy collected from registered Malaysian employers.

Huawei AI

Huawei is a Chinese technology company whose Ascend AI chips, Pangu models and CloudMatrix computing systems have made it a central pillar of China's domestic artificial intelligence stack and the most credible non-Western challenger to Nvidia.

Hugging Face

An American AI company and open-source platform that hosts machine learning models, datasets, and applications, widely described as the "GitHub of machine learning" for its role as the central repository of the open AI community.

Human-in-the-Loop

Human-in-the-loop (HITL) is a design pattern that keeps people involved in training, evaluating or supervising an AI system so its outputs stay accurate, accountable and safe.

Humanity's Last Exam

Humanity's Last Exam (HLE) is an expert-level benchmark of 2,500 public academic questions created by the Center for AI Safety and Scale AI to measure how close AI is to the frontier of human knowledge.

Humanoid Robots

Humanoid robots are machines built with a human-like body plan — head, torso, two arms and two legs — designed to work in environments built for people, a field transformed since 2024 by AI foundation models and early commercial deployments.

Hunyuan

A family of large language models developed by Tencent, integrated across WeChat, QQ, and Tencent Cloud, offering multimodal capabilities including text, image, video, voice, and 3D generation through a unified omni-modal architecture.

Hybrid Search

Hybrid search is a retrieval technique that combines sparse keyword-based search (typically BM25) with dense vector semantic search to achieve superior recall and precision over either method alone.

Hyperparameter Tuning

The process of selecting optimal configuration values for a machine learning model's external parameters using methods such as grid search, random search, and Bayesian optimisation.

IBM watsonx

IBM's enterprise AI and data platform, comprising watsonx.ai for model development, watsonx.data as an open lakehouse, and watsonx.governance for AI risk and compliance management.

Ideogram

Ideogram is a Toronto-based generative AI company whose image models are known for accurately rendering readable text and typography inside generated images.

ILMU (Malaysian Large Language Model)

ILMU is Malaysia's first homegrown multimodal large language model, developed by YTL AI Labs to understand and generate Bahasa Melayu, Manglish and regional dialects across text, voice and vision.

Image Segmentation

A computer vision task that partitions an image into meaningful regions by assigning a class label to every pixel, enabling pixel-level understanding of visual scenes.

ImageNet

ImageNet is a large-scale labelled image dataset of more than 14 million photographs organised under the WordNet hierarchy, whose recognition challenge helped launch the modern deep learning era.

In-Context Learning

In-context learning is the ability of large language models to perform new tasks by conditioning on examples or instructions provided within the input prompt, without updating model weights.

Inference (Machine Learning)

Inference is the phase in which a trained machine learning model is used to generate predictions or outputs from new input data, distinct from the earlier training phase.

InfiniBand

InfiniBand is a high-bandwidth, low-latency interconnect standard used to link GPUs in AI training clusters, and the dominant fabric inside large-scale AI data centres.

Inflection AI

Inflection AI is a US artificial intelligence company known for the Pi chatbot, which lost most of its team to Microsoft in 2024 and pivoted to enterprise AI models and APIs.

Instruction Tuning

Instruction tuning is a supervised fine-tuning technique that trains large language models on datasets of instruction-response pairs, enabling models to follow natural language directions and generalise to unseen tasks in a zero-shot or few-shot setting.

Intel

Intel is an American semiconductor company that supplies Gaudi AI accelerators, Xeon server processors with built-in AI acceleration, and advanced packaging and foundry services, with major manufacturing operations in Malaysia.

Intel Gaudi

A line of AI accelerators built by Intel for training and serving large language models, originally developed by Habana Labs, positioned as a lower-cost alternative to Nvidia GPUs.

ISO/IEC 42001

ISO/IEC 42001 is the first international standard for an artificial intelligence management system, published in December 2023 to help organisations govern AI responsibly and demonstrably.

JAX

JAX is an open-source numerical computing library from Google that combines NumPy-style array programming with automatic differentiation and just-in-time compilation, used to train large-scale machine learning models on GPUs and TPUs.

Johor Data Centres

Johor data centres are the hyperscale computing facilities built in Malaysia's southern state of Johor, now Southeast Asia's largest concentration of AI data centres, driven by spillover from Singapore and the Johor-Singapore Special Economic Zone.

K-Means Clustering

K-means clustering is an unsupervised machine learning algorithm that partitions a dataset into k groups by minimising the sum of squared distances between data points and their assigned cluster centroids.

Kaggle

Kaggle is a Google-owned platform for data science competitions, public datasets and cloud notebooks that has grown into one of the world's largest machine learning communities.

Kilo Code

Kilo Code is a free, open-source AI coding agent that runs inside VS Code, JetBrains IDEs, the terminal and the cloud, and works with hundreds of language models through a single model-agnostic interface.

Kimi

A conversational AI assistant and long-context large language model developed by Moonshot AI, a Beijing startup, known for its industry-leading context window lengths and strong performance on agentic reasoning tasks.

Kling AI

A family of generative AI video models developed by Kuaishou Technology in China, capable of producing photorealistic short-form video with synchronised audio from text or image prompts.

Knowledge Distillation

Knowledge distillation is a model compression technique in which a smaller student neural network is trained to replicate the behaviour of a larger, more capable teacher model, enabling deployment of efficient models that approximate teacher-level performance.

Knowledge Graph

A structured knowledge representation that encodes entities and their relationships as a directed labelled graph, enabling machines to reason over interconnected facts across diverse domains.

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KAN)

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks are a neural network architecture that places learnable activation functions on connections rather than fixed activations on nodes, improving accuracy and interpretability.

Kubernetes

Kubernetes is an open-source container orchestration platform, originally designed at Google, that automates the deployment, scaling and management of containerised applications — including AI services.

KV Cache

A KV cache (key-value cache) is a memory optimisation used in transformer inference that stores pre-computed key and value tensors from the attention mechanism, eliminating redundant recomputation when generating tokens sequentially.

Labelbox

Labelbox is an American AI data labeling and model evaluation platform that enables organisations to annotate training datasets, manage labeling workflows, and curate high-quality data for machine learning development.

LAION

LAION is a German non-profit that publishes open image-text datasets — notably LAION-5B — which were used to train models such as Stable Diffusion.

Lambda

Lambda is a United States AI cloud company that rents NVIDIA GPU instances, clusters and supercomputers to AI developers, and is one of the largest independent neocloud providers ahead of a planned initial public offering.

LaMDA

A family of conversational large language models developed by Google Brain, designed specifically for dialogue, and the engine behind Google's early Bard chatbot.

LangChain

LangChain is an open-source framework for building applications powered by large language models, providing composable abstractions for chaining LLM calls with tools, memory, and data retrieval in Python and JavaScript.

Langfuse

Langfuse is an open-source LLM engineering platform that provides observability, tracing, prompt management, evaluation, and dataset tooling for teams building applications on top of large language models.

LangGraph

LangGraph is an open-source framework for building stateful, multi-actor AI agent applications using graph-based workflows, extending the LangChain ecosystem with cycle-capable execution and persistent state management.

LangSmith

LangSmith is an observability, tracing, and evaluation platform from LangChain for debugging, monitoring, and continuously improving large language model and AI agent applications in production.

Large Language Models

Large language models (LLMs) are AI systems trained on vast corpora of text to predict and generate natural language. They underpin modern chatbots, code assistants, and generative AI applications.

Latent Space

A latent space is the compressed, lower-dimensional representation of data learned by a machine learning model, in which similar items sit close together and each dimension corresponds to an unobserved latent variable.

Layer Normalisation

Layer normalisation is a technique that normalises the inputs across the features of a single training example, stabilising and accelerating the training of deep neural networks, especially transformers.

Liquid Cooling

Liquid cooling removes heat from AI servers using chilled liquid — through cold plates mounted on chips or by full immersion — instead of the air-based systems used in conventional data centres.

Llama

Llama is a family of open-weight large language models developed by Meta AI, released under a permissive licence that allows researchers and developers to freely download, fine-tune, and deploy the models for both research and commercial use.

llama.cpp

llama.cpp is an open-source C/C++ inference engine that runs quantised large language models on everyday hardware — from laptops and phones to servers — and underpins many popular local AI tools.

LlamaIndex

LlamaIndex is an open-source Python and TypeScript framework for building retrieval-augmented and agentic AI applications over private data sources.

LLM Evaluation

LLM evaluation is the practice of measuring large language model behaviour with standardised benchmarks, harnesses and human or model-based judging, so that models can be compared fairly.

LLM Routing

The practice of dynamically selecting which large language model should handle a given query in order to balance cost, latency, and output quality across a pool of models.

LLM-as-a-Judge

LLM-as-a-judge is an evaluation method in which a large language model assesses the quality of outputs produced by other AI systems, offering a scalable alternative to human review.

LM Studio

LM Studio is a free desktop application for downloading and running open-weight large language models locally, with an OpenAI-compatible server, built-in RAG and MCP support.

LMArena

LMArena — originally Chatbot Arena and rebranded as Arena in 2026 — is a crowdsourced platform that ranks large language models through anonymous head-to-head comparisons and publishes widely cited leaderboards.

Logistic Regression

Logistic regression is a statistical and machine learning method for classification that models the probability of an outcome by applying the logistic (sigmoid) function to a linear combination of input features.

Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)

Long Short-Term Memory is a recurrent neural network architecture designed to learn long-range dependencies in sequential data by using gating mechanisms to control information flow.

LoRA (Low-Rank Adaptation)

LoRA is a parameter-efficient fine-tuning technique that adapts large pre-trained models by injecting small trainable low-rank matrices into transformer layers, drastically reducing the number of trainable parameters without sacrificing performance.

Lovable

Lovable is a Swedish AI-powered software development platform that builds complete web applications from natural-language descriptions, popularised as one of the leading "vibe coding" tools for non-programmers.

Luma AI

Luma AI is an American generative AI company whose Dream Machine and Ray video models serve creative professionals, and which raised US$900 million in 2025 to scale multimodal world models.

Machine Learning

Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence in which systems improve their performance on tasks through experience — by automatically learning patterns from data rather than following explicitly programmed rules.

Machine Translation

Machine translation is the automated conversion of text or speech from one natural language into another using rule-based, statistical, or neural systems.

Malaysia AI Governance Framework

The Malaysia AI Governance Framework is a national set of guidelines, standards, and forthcoming legislation that defines responsible AI development and deployment in Malaysia.

Malaysia AI Safety Institute

The Malaysia AI Safety Institute (MY-AISafe) is a Malaysian government body established in July 2026 to evaluate AI risks, support safety testing and build national technical capability in AI safety within AI Malaysia Berhad.

Malaysia AI Startups

Malaysia AI startups refers to the ecosystem of young technology companies developing artificial intelligence products in Malaysia, supported by government agencies and programmes such as MDEC, Cradle Fund and the KL20 action plan.

Malaysia AI Talent

Malaysia AI talent refers to the workforce of AI engineers, data scientists, ML practitioners, and researchers in Malaysia, along with the government and industry initiatives aimed at developing and attracting AI expertise to meet the demands of the digital economy.

Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC)

The Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) is Malaysia's statutory regulator for the communications and multimedia industry, responsible for licensing, spectrum and online safety, and a central institution in the country's response to AI-generated harms such as deepfakes.

MaLLaM (Malaysia Large Language Model)

MaLLaM is a family of large language models developed by Malaysian startup Mesolitica, pretrained from scratch on Malay-language data to understand Malaysian dialects, colloquialisms, and regional languages.

Mamba (Structured State Space Model)

Mamba is a selective state space model architecture that achieves linear-time sequence modelling, offering a computationally efficient alternative to the Transformer for long-context tasks.

Manus (AI Agent)

Manus is an autonomous AI agent developed by Butterfly Effect that carries out multi-step tasks such as research, data analysis and software creation, and became one of the most closely watched products of the agentic AI wave after its 2025 launch.

Markov Decision Process

A Markov decision process is a mathematical framework for modelling sequential decision-making in which outcomes are partly random and partly under the control of a decision-maker.

Marvell Technology

Marvell Technology is a US semiconductor company that designs custom AI accelerators (XPUs), networking and optical interconnect chips for hyperscale data centres.

MDEC — Malaysia Digital Economy Corporation

MDEC (Malaysia Digital Economy Corporation) is the Malaysian government agency tasked with driving the country's digital economy — including AI adoption, digital talent development, and tech-sector FDI.

Mechanistic Interpretability

A field of AI research that seeks to reverse-engineer the internal computations of neural networks into human-understandable features and circuits, in support of AI safety and reliability.

Mesolitica

Mesolitica is a Malaysian artificial intelligence company that develops the MaLLaM family of open-source Malay language models, together with Malaysian speech and multimodal AI tools.

Meta AI

Meta AI is the artificial intelligence research division and product brand of Meta Platforms, responsible for the Llama family of open-weight language models and integrated AI assistants across Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, and Messenger.

Meta-Learning

A machine learning paradigm in which models learn how to learn, acquiring inductive biases across a distribution of tasks so they can adapt rapidly to new tasks with minimal data.

Microsoft AI

Microsoft AI (MAI) is Microsoft's consumer-facing artificial intelligence division, developer of the MAI model family, Copilot experiences and Microsoft's AI product surface.

Microsoft Copilot

Microsoft Copilot is an AI-powered assistant integrated across Microsoft's product ecosystem — including Windows, Microsoft 365, Edge, and Azure — using large language models to assist with writing, coding, data analysis, and task automation.

Midjourney

An independent AI research lab and image generation service that produces images and video from natural-language text prompts, accessible primarily through Discord and a web application.

Milvus

Milvus is an open-source, cloud-native vector database built for high-performance approximate nearest neighbour search over massive embedding datasets, widely used in retrieval-augmented generation and semantic search.

MIMOS Berhad

MIMOS Berhad is Malaysia's national applied research and development centre under MOSTI, advancing technology platforms in artificial intelligence, semiconductors, and quantum computing.

MiniMax

A Chinese AI company and model developer known for the MiniMax-M1 and M2 large language models featuring ultra-long context windows of up to 4 million tokens, strong agentic performance, and open MIT-licensed releases.

Ministry of Digital (Malaysia)

The Ministry of Digital is the Malaysian federal ministry responsible for the country's digital economy and technology agenda, established in December 2023 and led by Minister Gobind Singh Deo.

Mistral AI

Mistral AI is a French artificial intelligence company founded in 2023 that develops and releases open-weight and proprietary large language models, notable for its competitive performance-to-efficiency ratio and commitment to open-source distribution.

Mixed Precision Training

Mixed precision training is a technique that speeds up and reduces the memory cost of training neural networks by performing many computations in lower-precision number formats while preserving accuracy with selective higher-precision steps.

Mixtral

Mixtral is a family of open-weight sparse mixture-of-experts large language models developed by Mistral AI, comprising Mixtral 8x7B and Mixtral 8x22B, released under the Apache 2.0 licence.

Mixture of Experts

Mixture of Experts (MoE) is a machine learning architecture in which a model routes each input to a small subset of specialised sub-networks called experts, enabling large model capacity at a fraction of the compute cost.

Mixture-of-Depths

A conditional-computation technique in which a transformer learns to skip its own layers for selected tokens, allocating compute dynamically across a sequence while keeping the total budget fixed.

MLflow

An open-source platform for managing the end-to-end machine learning lifecycle, including experiment tracking, model packaging, a model registry, and deployment.

MLOps

A set of practices and tools that combine machine learning, DevOps, and data engineering to automate and operationalise the full lifecycle of ML models from development through production deployment and monitoring.

MLPerf

The industry-standard benchmark suite for measuring machine learning training and inference performance, maintained by the MLCommons consortium to provide transparent, comparable AI hardware numbers.

MLX

MLX is an open-source machine learning framework from Apple, built for Apple silicon's unified memory architecture, with a NumPy-like API for training and running models locally.

MMLU (Massive Multitask Language Understanding)

MMLU is a multiple-choice benchmark of 15,908 questions across 57 subjects that became the standard measure of general knowledge in large language models after its 2021 release.

Modal

Modal is a serverless cloud platform that lets developers run GPUs, batch jobs, model inference and AI agents from ordinary Python code, billed per second.

Model Cards

Model cards are structured documentation sheets accompanying machine learning models that disclose intended uses, performance characteristics, training data, limitations, and ethical considerations.

Model Collapse

Model collapse is the progressive degradation of generative AI models trained on data generated by earlier models, causing them to forget rare information and distort the original data distribution.

Model Compression

Model compression is a set of techniques that reduce the size, memory footprint, and computational cost of machine learning models while preserving predictive accuracy, enabling deployment on resource-constrained hardware.

Model Context Protocol

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is an open standard introduced by Anthropic in 2024 that defines a universal interface for connecting large language models to external tools, data sources, and services.

Model Merging

Model merging combines the weights of two or more fine-tuned models into a single model without any additional training, producing a system that inherits several specialisations at once.

Model Pruning

A model compression technique that removes redundant or low-importance parameters from a neural network to reduce size, memory footprint, and inference latency while preserving accuracy.

Model Registry

A model registry is a centralised system that catalogues, versions, and governs trained machine learning models throughout their lifecycle, supporting reproducibility, deployment, and compliance.

Model Serving

Model serving is the discipline of deploying trained machine learning models behind APIs or runtimes so that production applications can request predictions at scale with predictable latency, throughput, and reliability.

Monte Carlo Methods

A broad class of computational algorithms that use repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results, widely used in machine learning for Bayesian inference, reinforcement learning, and uncertainty estimation.

Monte Carlo Tree Search

A heuristic search algorithm that explores decision trees by randomly simulating sequences of moves, best known for enabling AlphaGo to defeat world champions.

Moonshot AI

Moonshot AI is a Beijing-based artificial intelligence company founded in 2023 that develops the Kimi family of large language models and the Kimi chatbot, and reached a reported valuation of US$35 billion in July 2026.

MRANTI

MRANTI is Malaysia's central technology commercialisation agency under MOSTI, operating a 686-acre innovation park in Bukit Jalil that supports startups, research, and Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies.

MSC Malaysia

MSC Malaysia, originally the Multimedia Super Corridor, was a Malaysian government initiative established in 1996 to attract technology investment and develop a high-technology economic zone, later rebranded as Malaysia Digital in 2022.

Multi-Agent Systems

Multi-agent systems in AI are architectures in which multiple autonomous AI agents, each with specialised capabilities, collaborate through communication and coordination to complete complex tasks that exceed the capability of any single agent.

Multi-Task Learning

Multi-task learning is a machine learning approach in which a model is trained simultaneously on multiple related tasks, using shared representations to improve generalisation and data efficiency compared to training separate single-task models.

Multimodal AI

Artificial intelligence systems that can process, understand, and generate information across multiple data types simultaneously, including text, images, audio, video, and other modalities.

MyCC and AI Competition Law in Malaysia

An overview of the Malaysia Competition Commission's role in regulating AI-driven digital markets, including its 2025 market review of the digital economy under the Competition Act 2010.

MyDigital Blueprint

The Malaysia Digital Economy Blueprint, known as MyDIGITAL, is Malaysias national strategy to transform the country into a digitally driven, high-income economy by 2030, with AI as a core enabler.

n8n

n8n is a source-available workflow automation platform from Berlin that combines a visual editor with custom code and native AI capabilities, valued at US$5.2 billion after SAP's 2026 investment.

Naive Bayes Classifier

Naive Bayes is a family of probabilistic classifiers based on Bayes' theorem that assume conditional independence between features, offering fast and effective classification especially for text and high-dimensional data.

Named Entity Recognition

Named entity recognition (NER) is a natural language processing task that identifies and classifies named entities in text — such as people, organisations, locations, and dates — into predefined categories.

Nano Banana

Nano Banana is a family of native image generation and editing models in Google's Gemini line, known for conversational photo editing, character consistency and rapid consumer adoption.

National AI Compute Exchange

The National AI Compute Exchange (NACX) is a Malaysian government-backed marketplace, developed by MDEC, that pools national demand for AI compute to secure cheaper access for SMEs, startups and public agencies.

National AI Office Malaysia

The National AI Office (NAIO) is a Malaysian government body established in 2024 to coordinate national artificial intelligence policy, governance, talent development, and adoption across public and private sectors.

National AI Roadmap Malaysia (AI-RMAP 2021–2025)

Malaysia's first comprehensive national strategy for artificial intelligence, adopted in December 2021 and led by MOSTI with MDEC as implementation partner, aiming to position Malaysia among the top 20 nations in AI government readiness by 2025.

National Cyber Security Agency (NACSA)

The Malaysian federal agency responsible for coordinating national-level cyber security policy, protecting Critical National Information Infrastructure, and shaping the country's response to emerging threats including artificial intelligence and AI-enabled attacks.

National Semiconductor Strategy (Malaysia)

Malaysia's National Semiconductor Strategy is a government blueprint to move the country up the chip value chain into IC design and advanced packaging by 2030.

Natural Language Generation

Natural Language Generation (NLG) is a subfield of artificial intelligence that automatically produces human-readable text from structured data, semantic representations, or other machine-readable inputs.

Natural Language Processing

Natural language processing (NLP) is the subfield of AI concerned with enabling computers to understand, interpret, manipulate, and generate human language in both text and speech form.

Nemotron

Nemotron is NVIDIA's family of open foundation models for reasoning, vision-language and edge agentic workloads, released with open weights and training recipes.

Neocloud

A neocloud is a specialised cloud provider that rents out GPU capacity and AI compute as a service, competing with general-purpose hyperscalers such as AWS, Azure and Google Cloud.

Neptune.ai

Neptune.ai was an MLOps experiment tracking and metadata management platform that provided data science teams with tools to log, compare, and reproduce machine learning experiments at scale; the company was acquired by OpenAI in 2025.

Neural Architecture Search

Neural architecture search is the automated design of neural network architectures using search algorithms, reinforcement learning, or gradient-based methods to discover models that meet target accuracy, latency, and size constraints.

Neural Network

A neural network is a computational model inspired by biological brains, composed of interconnected layers of nodes that learn patterns from data through weighted connections.

Neural Processing Unit

A neural processing unit (NPU) is a specialised processor that accelerates neural-network inference on devices such as smartphones and AI PCs, measured in TOPS and central to the shift toward on-device artificial intelligence.

Neural Radiance Fields (NeRF)

A method that reconstructs a 3D scene from a set of 2D photographs by training a neural network to represent the scene as a continuous field of colour and density.

Neural Scaling Laws

Neural scaling laws are empirical relationships describing how the performance of neural networks improves predictably as a function of model size, dataset size, and compute budget, enabling principled resource allocation for AI training.

Neuro-symbolic AI

Neuro-symbolic AI is a hybrid artificial intelligence paradigm that combines neural network-based learning with symbolic reasoning, integrating the pattern recognition strengths of deep learning with the structured reasoning and interpretability of symbolic methods.

Neuromorphic Computing

Neuromorphic computing is a hardware and algorithm paradigm that mimics the structure and signalling of biological brains, using spiking neural networks and event-driven processing to achieve high energy efficiency.

NIST AI Risk Management Framework

The NIST AI Risk Management Framework is a voluntary United States framework that helps organisations govern, map, measure and manage the risks of artificial intelligence systems.

NotebookLM (Gemini Notebook)

NotebookLM, renamed Gemini Notebook in July 2026, is Google's source-grounded AI research assistant that answers questions and generates study materials strictly from documents a user uploads.

Notion AI

AI writing, search and agent features built into the Notion workspace, bundled with Notion's Business and Enterprise plans since 2025.

Nucleus Sampling (Top-p)

Nucleus sampling, or top-p sampling, is a decoding strategy for language models that samples from the smallest set of tokens whose cumulative probability exceeds a threshold.

NVIDIA

An American technology company and the world's dominant supplier of graphics processing units (GPUs) for artificial intelligence training and inference, responsible for the CUDA parallel computing platform and a broad ecosystem of AI hardware and software.

NVIDIA Blackwell

NVIDIA Blackwell is a GPU architecture introduced in 2024 for AI training and inference, featuring dual-die GPUs, FP4 precision, and the GB200 Grace Blackwell Superchip and NVL72 rack-scale systems for trillion-parameter models.

NVIDIA DGX

NVIDIA DGX is NVIDIA's line of purpose-built AI supercomputers — from the 2016 DGX-1 through the Blackwell generation and the desktop-scale DGX Spark — used for training and running large AI models.

NVIDIA H100

The NVIDIA H100 is a data-centre graphics processing unit built on the Hopper architecture that became the defining hardware of the generative AI boom, powering frontier model training — and Malaysia's first AI supercomputer at YTL's data centre park in Johor.

NVIDIA Rubin

NVIDIA Rubin is the AI data-centre platform generation that succeeds Blackwell, combining Rubin GPUs, Vera CPUs and a licensed Groq LPU inference tier into POD-scale systems shipping from the second half of 2026.

NVIDIA TensorRT

NVIDIA TensorRT is NVIDIA's deep-learning inference optimisation SDK and ecosystem — a compiler plus the open-source TensorRT-LLM library that turns trained models into optimised engines for running on NVIDIA GPUs.

NVLink

NVLink is a high-speed processor interconnect developed by NVIDIA that links GPUs and CPUs together inside AI servers and racks, replacing PCIe as the data path for large-scale AI training and inference.

Object Detection

Object detection is a computer vision task that involves identifying the location and category of one or more objects within an image or video frame, producing bounding boxes and class labels for each detected instance.

OECD AI Principles

The OECD AI Principles are the first intergovernmental standard on artificial intelligence, adopted in 2019 and revised in 2024, setting out five values-based principles and five recommendations for policymakers.

Ollama

Ollama is an open-source runtime that enables developers and researchers to download, run, and manage large language models locally on consumer hardware without cloud API dependencies.

OLMo

A family of fully open language models from the Allen Institute for AI (Ai2), released with open training data, open-source code, intermediate checkpoints, and transparent evaluation recipes.

ONNX (Open Neural Network Exchange)

An open standard format for representing machine learning models that enables interoperability between deep learning frameworks, runtimes, and hardware platforms.

Open WebUI

Open WebUI is a self-hosted, open-source interface for chatting with local and cloud language models, and one of the most-starred AI projects on GitHub.

Open Weights

Open weights refers to machine learning models whose trained parameters are published for download and reuse — a category distinct from full open source, now spanning frontier-class LLMs under MIT, Apache 2.0 and custom licences.

Open-Weight Models

Open-weight models are AI models whose trained parameters are published for anyone to download, run and modify — a category that grew from a niche into a serious competitor to closed frontier systems during 2025 and 2026.

OpenAI

An American artificial intelligence research organisation and technology company, founded in 2015, known for developing the GPT series of language models and the ChatGPT conversational AI platform.

OpenAI Codex

OpenAI Codex is a software engineering agent from OpenAI that writes code, reviews pull requests and completes engineering tasks in cloud sandboxes, across the CLI, code editors and ChatGPT.

OpenAI o-Series

The OpenAI o-Series is a family of reasoning models — o1, o3 and o4-mini — trained to deliberate before answering, later folded into the unified GPT-5 system.

OpenClaw

A free, open-source autonomous AI assistant that runs on the user's own machine and operates through messaging platforms and native desktop and mobile apps.

OpenCode

OpenCode is a free, open-source AI coding agent that runs in the terminal, desktop app and IDE and connects to more than 75 model providers, making it one of the leading model-agnostic alternatives to vendor-locked coding assistants.

OpenHands

OpenHands is an open-source autonomous software development agent platform, originally launched as OpenDevin, that lets AI agents write code, run commands and browse the web inside a sandbox to complete engineering tasks end to end.

OpenRouter

OpenRouter is an AI model gateway that gives developers a single API and billing account for hundreds of language models from dozens of providers, with automatic routing and fallback between them.

OpenVINO

OpenVINO is an open-source toolkit developed by Intel for optimising and deploying deep learning inference across Intel hardware, including CPUs, GPUs, Neural Processing Units, and FPGAs, with broad support for major AI frameworks and model formats.

Optical Character Recognition

A computer vision technology that converts images of typed, handwritten, or printed text into machine-readable digital text, increasingly powered by deep learning and transformer-based vision models.

Oracle AI

Oracle AI is Oracle Corporation's artificial-intelligence strategy spanning Oracle Cloud Infrastructure GPU capacity, managed generative-AI services, and large-scale data-centre partnerships such as the Stargate programme with OpenAI.

Overfitting

Overfitting is a modelling error in machine learning where a model learns the training data too closely, including its noise, and consequently performs poorly on new, unseen data.

Palantir AI

Palantir's Artificial Intelligence Platform (AIP) and the company's suite of data-integration and AI-deployment products used by enterprises and governments.

Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning

A family of techniques that adapts a pretrained language or vision model to a downstream task by training only a small fraction of its parameters, dramatically reducing compute, memory, and storage requirements compared to full fine-tuning.

PDPA AI Compliance

PDPA AI compliance refers to the application of Malaysia's Personal Data Protection Act 2010 to artificial intelligence systems, governing how personal data may be collected, processed, and used in AI training, inference, and deployment.

Penang's Semiconductor and AI Ecosystem

Penang hosts one of Southeast Asia's most concentrated semiconductor clusters — an ecosystem of more than 350 multinationals built since 1972 around assembly, testing and advanced packaging, now repositioning for AI hardware demand.

Perceptron

The perceptron is a single-layer neural network and linear binary classifier introduced by Frank Rosenblatt in 1957, forming the historical foundation of modern neural networks.

Perplexity AI

Perplexity AI is an American AI company that operates an answer engine combining real-time web search with large language model synthesis, providing cited, conversational responses to user queries.

Personal Data Protection Act (Malaysia)

Malaysia's Personal Data Protection Act 2010 governs the processing of personal data in commercial transactions, with 2024 amendments that added data protection officer, breach notification and data portability obligations relevant to AI systems.

pgvector

pgvector is an open-source PostgreSQL extension that adds a vector data type and similarity-search operators, allowing embeddings to be stored and queried directly inside a relational database.

Phi (Language Model)

A family of small language models developed by Microsoft Research that demonstrate strong reasoning and instruction-following at parameter counts an order of magnitude smaller than typical frontier models.

Physical AI

Physical AI is artificial intelligence that perceives, reasons about, and acts upon the physical world through embodied systems such as robots, autonomous vehicles, and automated facilities, bridging digital intelligence and real-world action.

Physical Intelligence

Physical Intelligence is a robotics AI company building general-purpose foundation models — pi0 and its successors — that control many different robot types from one trained policy.

Pika Labs

A United States-based artificial intelligence startup founded in 2023 that develops the Pika text-to-video and image-to-video generation models, competing with Runway and OpenAI's Sora in the AI video generation market.

Pinecone

Pinecone is a managed, cloud-native vector database designed for storing high-dimensional embeddings and serving low-latency similarity search for retrieval-augmented AI applications.

Pose Estimation

Pose estimation is the computer vision task of detecting and tracking the position and orientation of human bodies, hands, or objects from images or video, typically by locating keypoints such as joints.

Precision and Recall

Precision and recall are two complementary metrics used to evaluate classification models, measuring respectively the correctness of positive predictions and the completeness with which actual positives are identified.

Predictive Maintenance

Predictive maintenance is the use of sensor data, statistical modelling, and machine learning to forecast equipment failures before they occur, enabling repairs to be scheduled precisely when needed.

Principal Component Analysis

An unsupervised statistical technique that transforms correlated variables into a smaller set of uncorrelated components that preserve as much variance in the original data as possible.

Prompt Caching

Prompt caching is an inference optimisation technique that stores precomputed key-value representations of repeated prompt prefixes, reducing latency and token processing costs for applications with stable system prompts or long shared contexts.

Prompt Engineering

The practice of designing and optimising input instructions given to large language models to elicit accurate, relevant, and well-structured outputs for a given task or application.

Prompt Injection

Prompt injection is a security vulnerability affecting large language model applications in which an attacker embeds adversarial instructions in model inputs to override the system's intended behaviour, bypass safety controls, or exfiltrate sensitive information.

Proximal Policy Optimization

A reinforcement learning algorithm developed by OpenAI that stabilises policy gradient training by constraining the size of policy updates, widely used for fine-tuning large language models through RLHF.

PyTorch

PyTorch is an open-source machine learning framework, originally developed by Meta AI, that provides tensor computation with GPU acceleration and a dynamic computational graph for building and training deep neural networks.

Q-Learning

Q-learning is a model-free, off-policy reinforcement learning algorithm that learns the value of taking a given action in a given state, enabling an agent to derive an optimal policy through trial and error.

Qdrant

An open-source, Rust-based vector database and similarity search engine designed for high-performance storage and retrieval of high-dimensional embeddings, with support for hybrid search and multitenant deployments.

QLoRA

QLoRA is a memory-efficient fine-tuning technique that quantises a pretrained language model to 4-bit precision and trains small low-rank adapters, enabling very large models to be tuned on a single GPU.

Qualcomm

Qualcomm is an American semiconductor and telecommunications company that designs Snapdragon system-on-chips, cellular modems and neural processing units for phones, laptops, cars and connected devices, and holds a foundational portfolio of cellular patents.

Quantisation

Quantisation is a model compression technique that reduces the numerical precision of a neural network's weights and activations from high-bit floating-point formats to lower-bit representations, decreasing memory usage and accelerating inference with minimal accuracy loss.

Quantization

Quantization is a model-compression technique that reduces the numerical precision of a neural network's weights and activations, cutting memory use and accelerating inference at some cost in accuracy.

Question Answering

Question answering is the natural language processing task of producing accurate answers to questions posed in natural language, often using information retrieval, reading comprehension, or large language models.

Qwen

Qwen is a family of large language models developed by Alibaba Cloud, ranging from small open-weight dense models to trillion-parameter mixture-of-experts systems, with strong multilingual and reasoning capabilities.

Random Forest

Random forest is an ensemble machine learning algorithm that builds many decision trees on bootstrapped samples and aggregates their predictions to improve accuracy and reduce overfitting.

Ray (Distributed Computing Framework)

Ray is an open-source framework for scaling Python and machine learning workloads from a laptop to large clusters, providing unified libraries for distributed training, tuning, serving and reinforcement learning.

ReAct (Reasoning and Acting)

ReAct is a prompting framework that interleaves reasoning traces with task actions, letting a language model plan, call external tools, and incorporate observations to solve problems more reliably.

Reasoning Models

Reasoning models are large language models trained to generate extended internal deliberation before producing a final answer, using test-time compute to improve accuracy on complex tasks such as mathematics, coding, and multi-step logic.

Recommendation System

A recommendation system is an information filtering algorithm that predicts and surfaces items — such as products, content, or services — that a particular user is likely to find relevant, based on past behaviour, item attributes, or the preferences of similar users.

Recraft

Recraft is a generative AI design platform and text-to-image model known for producing editable SVG vector graphics and brand-controlled image generation.

Recurrent Neural Network

A recurrent neural network (RNN) is a class of neural network designed for sequential data, where connections between nodes form directed cycles allowing information to persist across time steps.

Regularisation (Machine Learning)

Regularisation is a collection of techniques in machine learning that constrain models during training to reduce overfitting and improve generalisation to unseen data.

Reinforcement Learning

A machine learning paradigm in which an agent learns to make sequential decisions by interacting with an environment and optimising for cumulative reward through trial and error.

Reinforcement Learning from AI Feedback

Reinforcement Learning from AI Feedback (RLAIF) is an alignment technique in which an AI model provides preference labels to train a reward model, replacing or supplementing expensive human annotation used in RLHF.

Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback

A machine learning technique that trains a reward model from human preference data and uses it to align large language models with human values, safety requirements, and intended behaviour through reinforcement learning.

Replicate

Replicate is a cloud platform that lets developers run and fine-tune machine learning models through a single API, acquired by Cloudflare in December 2025.

Replit Agent

The Replit Agent is an autonomous AI software engineer built into the Replit browser-based development platform, capable of building, testing and deploying complete applications from natural-language instructions.

Reranking

Reranking is a two-stage information retrieval technique in which a fast first-stage retriever generates candidate documents, and a more accurate but computationally expensive model re-scores and reorders them.

Residual Network

A deep convolutional neural network architecture introduced by Microsoft Research in 2015 that uses skip connections to enable training of very deep networks, winning the ImageNet challenge with a top-5 error rate of 3.57%.

Responsible AI

A framework of principles and practices that guide the development and deployment of artificial intelligence systems to ensure they are safe, fair, transparent, accountable, and aligned with human values.

Retrieval-Augmented Generation

A technique that enhances large language model outputs by retrieving relevant documents from an external knowledge base at inference time, grounding responses in up-to-date and domain-specific information.

Reward hacking

Reward hacking, or specification gaming, is when an AI agent exploits flaws in its reward function to score highly without performing the intended task.

Reward Modeling

Reward modeling is the process of training a neural network to predict human or AI preferences over model outputs, providing a scalable reward signal for reinforcement learning-based alignment of language models.

RISC-V

RISC-V is a free and open standard instruction set architecture for computer processors, developed at the University of California, Berkeley, and stewarded by RISC-V International in Switzerland.

ROCm

ROCm is AMD's free and open-source software platform for GPU computing, providing compilers, libraries and runtimes that enable AI and high-performance computing workloads on AMD Instinct accelerators.

Roo Code

Roo Code is an open-source AI coding agent for VS Code, forked from Cline, that organises agent behaviour into configurable modes for different development tasks.

Rotary Positional Embedding (RoPE)

A method for encoding token positions in transformer models by rotating query and key vectors, capturing relative position through rotation angles rather than additive position vectors.

Runway ML

Runway is a generative artificial intelligence company that develops video generation and editing models, best known for its Gen-series text-to-video systems used in filmmaking and content creation.

RWKV

RWKV is a hybrid neural network architecture that combines recurrent neural network efficiency with transformer-level parallel training, enabling constant-memory inference without a KV cache.

Ryt Bank

Ryt Bank is a Malaysian digital bank backed by YTL Group and Sea Limited, launched in 2025 and marketed as the world's first AI-powered bank, built around its Ryt AI assistant and Malaysia's homegrown ILMU language model.

Safe Superintelligence

Safe Superintelligence (SSI) is a private AI research laboratory founded by former OpenAI chief scientist Ilya Sutskever, funded with roughly $8 billion while operating with no product and a single stated goal, safe superintelligence.

Sakana AI

A Tokyo-based artificial intelligence startup founded by former Google researchers, known for nature-inspired training methods and Japanese-language AI models, valued at US$2.65 billion after its 2025 Series B.

Salesforce Einstein

Salesforce Einstein is an integrated artificial intelligence platform embedded across the Salesforce CRM ecosystem, providing predictive analytics, generative AI, and autonomous agents for sales, service, marketing, and commerce workflows.

SambaNova Systems

SambaNova Systems is a US AI infrastructure company that designs dataflow processors and inference platforms, valued at US$11 billion after its 2026 financing round.

Samsung AI

Samsung AI is the artificial intelligence effort of the South Korean electronics conglomerate, spanning the on-device Gauss models, the Galaxy AI feature suite and AI-oriented memory chips.

SC Malaysia Fintech

The Securities Commission Malaysia (SC) regulates capital market fintech activities including digital assets, robo-advisory, equity crowdfunding, and AI-driven investment services through a framework of licensing, regulatory sandboxes, and guidelines.

Scale AI

An American data labelling, evaluation, and AI infrastructure company that supplies training data and evaluation services to leading AI laboratories, autonomous vehicle developers, and government agencies.

Scikit-learn

Scikit-learn is an open-source Python library for classical machine learning, providing accessible and consistent implementations of classification, regression, clustering, and data-preprocessing algorithms built on NumPy and SciPy.

SEA-LION

SEA-LION (Southeast Asian Languages In One Network) is an open-source family of large language models developed by AI Singapore to serve the languages and cultures of Southeast Asia.

Seedance

Seedance is a family of generative video models developed by ByteDance that produces high-definition video from text, images and audio, and is among the most widely used AI video-generation systems.

Seedream

Seedream is a family of image generation and editing models developed by ByteDance's Seed team and distributed through the Doubao assistant, Dreamina and cloud APIs.

Segment Anything Model

The Segment Anything Model (SAM) is a foundation model from Meta AI for promptable image and video segmentation, able to isolate any object from a click, box, or mask with strong zero-shot generalisation.

Self-Supervised Learning